a) Voltaire (1694-1778)
One of the leading historian of rationalism is the flow of Voltaire (1694-1778) which was originally named Francois Arouet. After completing his law studies he extended his own studies, in the field of literature, especially the authors show tonel, Epen (heroism), stories of novels, essays of literary essays, and historical works.
However, he eventually devoted almost his entire life to research and writing of history. One of his most important is "Esssay Sur les moeurs et L'esprit des nations' (customs and spirit of the nations). The work opens new vistas of the Europeans against the culture outside of Europe and the wider horizons of other nations. As adherents of rationalism of Voltaire relying on humans as agents of history in the search for facts and compile them into historical narratives. Briefly it can be concluded that Voltaire was to have the following characteristics:
- Cosmopolitan, that his views are broad and not tied to a place, a particular nation or ethnic group. Universal, which means people talk about or discuss in public. Picture of man according to the rationalists (who once humanist) is that there is only one human being without distinction of race or culture. Rationalists also wants all mankind to establish a great fraternity.
- Voltaire's work is not arranged chronologically, but are thematic, which contains a picture of the lifestyle or human civilization which is a new trend in European historiography at that time.
- The materials used to construct his work derived from the essay or ethnographic writings, stories of trips made by the adventurous world traveler such as Tome Pires, Pinto, Marcopollo, Baros and so on. Thus the book is more of an overview or description of people or tribes who once visited by adventurers such as the Gulf of Persia, Malacca, China, Malabar, India and so on.
Another Historical works of Voltaire is:
- Histoire de Charles XII (1731)
- Le Siecle de Louis XIV (1751)
- Histoire de la Guerre de 1741 (1755)
- Histoire generale depuis Charlemagne jusqu '`a nos jours (1756)
- And more famous is the "Essay sur les moeurs et l'esprit des nations et sur les principaux faits de l'histoire depuis Charlemagne jusqu ' a Louis XIII
- Histoire de l'empire de Russie sous Pierre le Grand (1760-1763)
- Philosophie de l'histoire (1765)
- Precis du Siecle de Louis XV (1768).
b) Montesquieu (1689-1758)
Montesquieu (1689-1758), born with the name of Charles-Louis de Secondat in the court of La Brede, Bordeaux. In this city he studied law and until in 1726 he did work as a jurist. When in 1716 he became a member of the Academy in his hometown, he devotes his 'Discours de reception' on the politics of the Romans about religion. His first works are renowned Persanes Lettres (1721), not related to the history.
New in his work a great and famous Esprit des lois (1748), formulated the idea of 'esprit General', is a very interesting history of philosophy. Besides, these works also contain Raia much about political science and sociology. His theory is known about the state system is Trias Politica, the system of division / separation of powers in a democratic country that is an advanced three: executive, legislative and judicial branches. As an expert on state administration in his teachings widely practiced in government in Western countries.
c) Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes, which can also be categorized as an expert in state administration proposed an idea how a society should be set, and who should hold power. The teaching is the famous "Homo homini lopus". In terms of power tends to absolutism of Hobbes's theory, namely that power must be held by a strong king.
d) J.J. Rousseau
Who also could be categorized as an homage to romantic figure. He argues that in addition to the ratio, the strength of man is also present in the sentiment and will. In this he talked about the general will, which is the theory of democracy. He said power was actually initially present in every individual in society. However, because there will eventually be appointed with a mandate to lead.
2. Positivism flow
Powered by rationalism in Europe at that time later developed what is called positivism, which was pioneered by August Comte, who is also known as the Father of Social Sciences. Positivism is a school of thought (mental) who taught that science should be able to make its laws. Thus the only science that comes with the right of the law recognized as a science. Therefore sciences such as social sciences, arts, including history should also be able to make its laws.
In Comte's philosophy of history makes a periodization of history into 3 times, namely:
In Comte's philosophy of history makes a periodization of history into 3 times, namely:
1. Age Theology, which is an era where people just believe that everything in this world is driven by super natural powers.
2. Methafisis era, the era in which men still believe there are forces beyond the physics that does not appear to be the driving dynamics of this life.
3. Age of rationalism, which is the age in which humans only believe that the dynamics in the world, including inanimate objects, its strength lies in the nature of law itself.
One of his followers in August Comte is the famous Henry Thomas Buckle, with his work entitled "History of Civilization in England". The book contains the history of the development of science and technology by looking for the factors driving force. In it he questioned why Science is growing rapidly in Europe, particularly in Britain than in the other hemisphere. The answer proposed is that of climate, soil conditions became the main driver of European progress. Such answers are not others as influenced by rationalism and positivism of Comte's philosophy of history.
Another fairly well-known historian is N.D.F. de Coulanges with his book "The Ancient City". In the book he states that the Greek and Roman historical writing is strongly influenced by religion (the Christian Middle Ages). Furthermore, in his book "History of the Political Institutions of Ancient France" (1870) he declared that history can only be reconstructed from the documents. Coulanges Such an idea was followed and even developed by Louis and Charles Lang Seignobos famous in his work with title "An Introduction to the Study of History" which is really a book of theory and methodology of history. According to two historians is that the reality of the past can only be described again based on historical documents that exist. The term is so popular about it is "no ducument no history".
3. Romanticism
As a reaction to positivism and also because the flow is driven by the nationalist movement, then comes what is called the flow romanticism. In the history of writing history or historiography, the term 'romantic' has more to do with political point of view of romanticism, namely the conservative vision of the state and society. In this case appeared opinions and feelings of anti-revolution, especially those addressed to the French revolution.
As the reason is that the French revolution turned out to be a very spectacular has deviated from its original ideals. Freedom and equality (democracy), which aspired to in the revolution turned out to deny rationalism, since the mass movement in the French revolution has been doing a lot of carnage, especially against the French nobility. Besides, as one of Napoleon's revolutionary leaders have appeared to be ruling dictators and imperialists who colonized and control of other European nations. The nature of irrational and negative impacts of the French revolution that eventually give rise to negative sentiment and bring the spirit of nationalism of the European nations who colonized. In the event that any European nation to be more attracted to their own culture. Therefore they were compelled to dig their own history and culture, including customs, law, art, literature, folklore, myth of heroism and so forth. Overall it was a manifestation of interest in their own past (romanticism) and national.
Romantic historical writing is the product and manufacturers of historicism. While romanticism is related to historical consciousness and spirit and to study and write his own past (region, country, tribe or nation itself). Revolutions are indeed political and historical consciousness has been awakened during the 19th century historicism. Yet truth has not been found definite definition of romantic historiography. Only be explained that as a reaction against positivism and rationalism, romanticism flow ratio incorrectly states that it is a principle that determines everything. There is a factor that is forgotten by the rationalists of sentiment, emotion or feeling. That is why supporters of romanticism also feel sympathy for medieval culture, arguing that anything that is owned by Europeans at that time (European culture) is also rooted (derived) from the Middle Ages. Thus they make a new assessment of medieval culture which was originally labeled as a dark century and stupidity by the rationalists. This means that at that time appeared a need for nostalgia to a romanticized past with impressions of a beautiful and well paced.
In German Romanticism movement has given rise to tremendous concern to the history of the country, region or its own territory. The intellectuals are abuzz do research or digging back to the law, folklore, art, history and others which is their heritage, all of which tracked the process of development according to the historical perspective. These symptoms are given a new stamp on the second part of the famous 19th century by the term "historicism", the school of thought that is controlled by a historical perspective in examining various aspects of national life both in the field of law, philosophy, art, economics, politics and so on.
In England in his work entitled "The Codex Diplomation Aevi Saxonisi" or "The Saxons in England" (1849), John Mitchell Kemble tells the origins of Anglo-Saxon culture, especially political culture. According to Anglo-Saxon political culture comes from the Anglo-Saxon custom of farmers who held a fellowship based on the idea of freedom. That which then evolve or grow the presence of a free society in the UK, which means not influenced by the French revolution.
Next Frederichh D. Maitland and Pallocks write "history of Classic Law to 1272, the contents of the history of law in the UK are said to derive from a natural progression in the UK.
4. Leopold van Ranke Pioneer Method For Critical History
Since the advent of the humanists in the Renaissance era marked a milestone or a Western European early modern era, the scientific study of history becomes more advanced. This was mainly due to the increasing number of research efforts in the history of 17th and 18th centuries. However, it is not worth the effort for the writing of history and works of historical synthesis that can be generated. Likewise there is no university education in vocational education for students of history (historians). Although there has been a professor, associate professor of history, the share of universities in the development of historical science is less prominent. Only in the 19th and 20th centuries a fundamental change, where the role of universities is very large. And as a pioneer in that it is Leopold van Ranke from Germany.
The flow of romanticism that tends to lead to the glorification of the culture itself, in the field of subjectivity historiography result is quite prominent in the writing of history. Therefore, the reaction came from a prominent pioneer of critical historical methods of Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886). After completing theological studies and classical philology in Leipzig (Germany) he became professor of classical languages in Frankfort a. d. Oder. In those years he showed great attention to the writers of classical history, however, as reach reflection and thought he made a sharp criticism or negative comments against the historians of his time a homage to the old romantic. In this case teaches that the events are sincerely happened is more interesting than the story is romanticized. Therefore he decided to reject all images that are all a fantasy in historical works and just stick to the facts.
In 1824 Ranke's first published book (The second book was never published), entitled romanischen un germanischen Geschichten der Volker (German history and German people), which covers the period 1494-1514. In the book he describes and compares the history of Germany with strengths like those of the powerful Romans. At that time he could still be categorized as a follower of romanticism.
Yet he himself really well aware of it, so that's why the second book was never published. This means that he realizes that in the work of the romantic history that contains a high subjectivity, while he wanted to develop a method of critical historical research by investigating the 'source credibility' (source criticism). Widely known in the research and writing of history is that historians should be adhered to the "ist eigenlig geschicte wat" (what happened). Only in that way then the truth of the past will be revealed.
The works of Leopold von Ranke as a pioneer of critical historical methods in the modern era, especially those containing the picture of the growth of the modern countries of Europe, among others:
- Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter Reformation
- Die romischen Papste, IHR Ihre Kirche und Staat im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert, Neun Bucher Geschichte preussischer
- Vornehmlich Französische Geschichte im 16. und 17 Jahrhundert
- Vornehmlich Englische Geschichte im 17. Jahrhundert
- Weltegeschichte (discussing the antiquity and Middle Ages)
Ranke in his career is not only famous as a great researcher and the perfect chronicler of his time, but he also holds the honor in education for the historians. He was the first pioneer organizes vocational education program at the University of Berlin history. The effort was first made with the provision of seminars on classical philology. On that occasion he held a training to young people about the historical method, by way of direct contact with sources of history. Practical exercises and critical methods of philology is no other method of research critical text, which became the core of vocational education (history) university. That was then known as Rankeschuler or Rankean Schoool.
From the seminars that followed the students were eventually produced more than 100 qualified historians. Some students are quite famous and Ranke memikiki big names in the history of law and government institutions Middle Ages, among others:
- Georg Waitz (1813-1886), who later became Professor at Kiel
- Friedrich Wilhem Giesebrecht (1814-1889), had been a professor at Konigsberg and later in Munich. Wattenbach Wilhelm (1819-1897), replacing the Waitz after death
- Heinrich von Sybel (1817-1895), had been a professor in Marburg, Munich and Bonn.
The method of Ranke documents first hand position is essential and irreplaceable. Without these documents there would be no history and historical studies "Was nicht in de Akten, hat nicht gelebt". With the documents of the past can be reconstructed in concrete individual realities, and also with certainty and impartiality. Although there is mention Ranke's method as a naïve realism, however, need to understand that Ranke fully aware of the objectivity of the historian is simply an ideal to strive (streefdoel). According to Ranke that history consists of periods of time-periods, each of which has a tendency, and ideally on their own. "Alle zijn voor God generaties gelijkberechtigd".
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